Nov 7, 2013
Indrie: ASSUMPTION AND HYPOTHESIS
Indrie: ASSUMPTION AND HYPOTHESIS: ASSUMPTIONS AND HYPOTHESES 1. The Definition of Assumptions People do things always based on their belief. For example, whe...
Nov 1, 2013
LINGUISTICS
LINGUISTICS
There are some
definitions of linguistic. Varga argued that linguistics is the scientific
study of language, including the sounds, words, and grammar rules. Another
definition of linguistics is scientific in the sense that the study of language
must be subjected to the scientific processes of observation, data collection,
formulation of hypothesis, analysis of data and formulation of theory based on the
structure of the language. Nasr (1984) in Hadi argued that linguistics is
concerned with human language as a universal and recognizable part of human
behavior and of the human abilities. From some statements above, it can be
conclude that linguistics is a study of language. While language is a system by
which sounds, signs and gestures are used to communicate meaning. For humans, a
system of speech sounds or signs which constitute linguistic knowledge of both
speaker and addressee convey and receive information.
The branches of Linguistic are:
A.
General linguistic generally describes the concepts and
categories of a particular language or among all language. It also provides
analyzed theory of the language. On the other hand, descriptive linguistic
describes or gives the data to confirm or refute the theory of particular
language explained generally.
B.
Micro linguistic is narrower view. It is concerned internal
view of language itself (structure of language systems) without related to
other sciences and without related how to apply it in daily life. Micro
linguistics covers the basic components or constituents of a language. This is
also referred to as theoretical linguistics. Theoretical linguists study the
structural aspects of language under the broad label of grammar. Some fields of
micro linguistic:
Ø Phonetics. It is the study of the production, physical properties and
perception of the actual sounds realizing the phonemes and of the suprasegmental elements
of speech. Phonetics is
divided into three sub-branches : 1) articulatory
phonetics, which is the study of made or articulated, 2) acoustic phonetics, which is the study
of the sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication, and 3) auditory phonetics, which is the study
of how speech sounds are perceived by the ear, auditory nerve, and brain.
Ø Phonology. It is the study of sound patterns of language, how speech
sounds are grouped by speaker to effect communication. There are several
different kinds of phonology processes: 1) Assimilations,
which are process that make two adjacent sound more alike with respect to some
feature, 2) Deletions, which are
processes that eliminate a sound, 3) Dissimilations,
which are processes that make two adjacent sounds less alike with respect to
some feature, and 4) Insertions,
which are processes that add a sound.
Ø Morphology. It the study of internal structures of words and how they
can be modified. Morphology accounts for word formation in languages. The basic
unit of analysis in morphology is called the ‘morpheme’. A morpheme is defined as
the minimal meaningful unit of grammatical analysis.
Ø Syntax. It is the study of the structure of sentences and of
underlying principles for generating and processing them. It links together
sound patterns and the meaning.
Ø Semantics. It is the study of the meaning of words (lexical
semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to
form the meanings of sentences
Ø Pragmatics. It is the study of how utterances are used (literally,
figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts.
C.
Macro-linguistics refers to aspects of linguistic study
which involve the application of the findings of theoretical linguistics to the
analysis of language in use. It is also called Applied Linguistics, because it
involves the application of linguistics in relation to other disciplines. It is
concerned external view of language itself with related to other sciences and
how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of micro linguistic:
Ø Evolutionary linguistics, the study of
the origin and subsequent development of language.
Ø Psycholinguistics, the study of
language and mind. Psycholinguistics is concerned with the psychological
mechanism underlying speech production and reception. It also studies how
children acquire their first language, speech perception, and loss of the
ability to use and understand language. It covers the cognitive processes that
make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of
vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it
possible to understand the utterance, word, text, etc.
Ø Sociolinguistics, the study of society
on the way language is used. The main aim of sociolinguistics is to study
language in its social and cultural context. This includes the study of
language in a society or speech community; language varieties; and language functions.
Sociolinguistics relates the differences observed in language use to the
problems that arise from those societal aspects.
Ø Clinical linguistics, the application
of linguistic theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology. The central
focus of Clinical Linguistics is the application of the principles and methods
of linguistics and phonetics to communication impairment in children and
adults. Clinical linguistics plays a key role in the description, analysis and
remediation of communication impairment.
Ø Neurolinguistics, the study of the
brain networks that underlie grammar and communication.
Ø Biolinguistics, the study of natural as
well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to human
language.
Ø Stylistics, the study of language and
literature .It studies the features of situationally distinctive uses
(varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of
accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social grousing
the use of language.
Ø Computational linguistics, an interdisciplinary
field dealing with the statistical
and/or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.
This modeling is not limited to any particular field of linguistics.
Traditionally, computational linguistics was usually performed by computer
scientists who had specialized in the application of computers to the
processing of a natural language.
Ø Historical linguistics or Diachronic
linguistics, the study of language change and evolution (historical study). The
aim of such investigations was to arrive at general hypotheses about how
languages change over time.
Ø Ethnolinguistics, a field of linguistic
anthropology which studies the language of a particular ethnic group. It is often
associated with regions where ethnicity plays a major role in language
description and status. Ethnolinguists study
the way perception and conceptualization influences language, and show
how this is linked to different cultures and societies
References:
Ahmadin, Dimjati. 2012. Levels of Meaning in
Semantic Course.Unpublished book. Malang: FKIP Universitas Islam
Malang.
Alkhazali, Ali. 2012. What are
Some the Branches of Linguistics? (online),
(http://www.arts.kufauniv.com/teaching/e/alialkhazali/files/Lecture%20N2.pdf. Accessed in October 14, 2013).
Ofulue, Christine I. 2009. Introduction to Linguistics. Nigeria: National Open University of
Nigeria
Varga, Laszlo. 2010. Introduction to English Linguistics a Companion to the Seminar.
Budapest: Eὄtvὄs Lorάnd University.
Oct 31, 2013
ASSUMPTION AND HYPOTHESIS
ASSUMPTIONS
AND HYPOTHESES
1.
The
Definition of Assumptions
People do things
always based on their belief. For example, when people want to cross the street
they will make sure that it is safe for them by looking at the right or left
side. If they do not believe, they will be safe, and it is impossible for them
to cross the street. Another illustration, all of us who study in UNISMA to
improve our academic competences, and we will get post graduate certificate
through studying for two years. So, what did we do before doing that? Of course, we firstly had belief that we can
do it at UNISMA. Unless we had belief, it would be possible for us to do study
at English graduate program of Islamic University of Malang. From these
illustrations, it can be concluded that assumption is our belief to do things.
In this case, the assumption in the research is that everything in this world
works under a certain system. These are the examples of assumptions:
a.
There is a correlation between students’
grammar achievement and students’ writing skill
b.
There is an effectiveness of communicative
drills toward students’ pronunciation achievement.
c.
There is an correlation between
students’ IQ and their achievement in
learning foreign language
2.
The
Definition of Hypotheses
Hypotheses are
statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a
prediction or conjecture about the outcomes of a relationship among attributes
or characteristics (Creswell: 2012: 111). These hypotheses are stated at the
beginning of a study, typically at the end of introduction. The investigators also
place them immediately after the review of the literature or in a separate
titled ‘’ hypotheses’’. In addition, Allyn and Bacon (1991:35) stated that
hypothesis is a conjecture or a guess at the solution to a problem or the
status of the situation. Moreover, according to Latief (2012:53) hypothesis is
temporary answer for the research problem. Moreover, according to Saputra (2012:60)
hypothesis can be as restatement of research problem by giving the prediction
of research findings. The following are the example of hypotheses and
assumption:
a.
Problems : Do students who get high grammar
achievement will be good in writing skill?
Assumption :
There is correlation between students’ grammar achievement and writing skill
Hypothesis :
The higher students’ grammar achievement, the better students writing skill
b.
Problem :
Can
communicative drill enhance the students’ pronunciation achievement?
Assumption :
There
is an effect of communicative drill to the students’ pronunciation achievement
Hypothesis :
Communicative
drill can enhance students’ pronunciation
achievement
c.
Problem :
Do the higher IQ the students have, the better their achievement in learning
foreign language?
Assumption : there is correlation between students
IQ and their achievement in learning a foreign language
Hypothesis :
The
higher IQ the students, the better their achievement in learning foreign
language.
3.
The
Types of Hypotheses
According to Latief (2012:54), the types of hypotheses are
a.
Theoretical
Hypothesis
Theoretical hypothesis is the researcher’s
prediction of the finding of his or her research based on a theory or a logical
common sense. For example:
Problem :
Do the sex effect the achievement in language learning?
Hypothesis : the female students would make
better achievement in language learning than male students of the same level
b.
Statistical
Hypothesis
According to Tuckman in Latief
(2012:57), the aim of statistical hypothesis is a statement that has to be made
by the researcher while computing the data to allow statistical hypothesis
testing. It always takes the form of null hypothesis (Ho) and followed with its alternative(s)
(H1, H2). For example:
Problem
: Do the female students make better
achievement in language learning than male students of the same level?
Ho : there is no difference in
achievement between female students and male students of the same level in
language learning
H1 : the female students make better
achievement than male students of the same level in language learning
H2 : the male students make better
achievement than female students of the same level in language learning
As stated Creswell (2012:126) null hypothesis
is the most traditional a form of writing. It is the prediction of what
researcher might study. For example:
Ho : There is no difference between at-risk
and non at-risk students in terms of students’ achievement on math test scores
of the third students in a Midwest school district
Independent variable : at risk students
Dependent variable : students’ achievements
Site : X school district.
In contrast to the null hypotheses
is used when researcher predict if there will be differences based on past
research or an explanation or reported theory in the literature. The
alternative hypotheses are divided into types. They are:
a)
Directional Alternative Hypotheses
In this hypothesis, researchers
predict the direction of change, a difference, a relationship for variables in
the total population of people. The researcher selects a sample of people form
a population and predicts that score will be higher, better or change in some
ways. For example:
Students who participate in direct learning in
four elementary schools will have high achievements score than students
who participate in whole-language
learning.
Independent variable :
learning (direct and whole-language)
Dependent variable :
achievement test score
Researcher site :
four elementary schools
Key indicator :
directional, prediction is implied
b)
Non Directional Hypotheses
In this hypothesis, researcher predicts the
direction a change, a difference, a relationship for variables in a population
but does not indicate whether the direction of this prediction will be positive
or negative or greater or less.
For example:
There is a difference between
varsity athletes in high school who smoke and those who do not smoke in terms
of athletic accomplishments.
Independent variable :
use of tobacco (smokers and non smokers)
Dependent variable :
athletic accomplishments
Participants :
varsity athletes
Site :
high schools
Key indicator: the words ‘’ a difference’’ but the
direction is not specified.
c.
Empirical
Hypothesis
Empirical hypothesis is the first conclusion of the
research which is still temporary as it based on initial interview and
observation.
4.
The
Guidelines of Writing Hypotheses
In writing hypotheses researchers need to include
specific components. The guidelines for writing them are:
a. State
variables in this order: independent( first position), dependent and control
(the third position)
b. If
we compare groups in our hypotheses, explicitly state the groups: if variables
are related, specified the relationship
among the variables
c. Make
a prediction about changes you expect in your groups, such a less or more favorable
or no changes (e.g., no differences), then test prediction using statistical
procedures.
d. State
information about participants and the side of the study but it may not be
necessary if it repeats information stated in our purposes.
REFERENCES
Allyn and Bacon.
1991. Research Method in Education: An
Introduction. United States of America: The University of Toledo press
Creswell, John
W. Educational Research: Planning,
Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston:
Pearson
Latief, Moh.
Adnan. 2012. Research Methods on Language
Learning an Introduction. Malang: state University Of Malang Press
Latief, Moh.
Adnan. 2012. Tanya Jawab Metode Penelitian Pemelajaran.
Malang: Universitas Malang Press
Suharsaputra,
Uhar. 2012. Kualitative, Kuantitatif dan
Tindakan. Bandung: Reftika Aditama
Oct 7, 2013
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